1. Significant chloride contamination
Concrete is contaminated due to chlorides, leading to reinforcement corrosion and spalled concrete.
2. Extensive carbonation
Extensive carbonation of concrete occurs due to low concrete cover and carbon dioxide (CO₂) diffusion, leading to reinforcement corrosion.
3. Corroded steel
Steel sections become corroded within encased concrete, causing reinforcement corrosion and spalled concrete.